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In mathematical terms, we can then define a society ( S) using the equation S = ( St, C), where C refers to culture and St refers to social structure. The separation of power into legislative, judicative and executive arms of government in modern democracies is such a rule, as is the rule to drive on the right-hand side of the road in most countries. ‘Social' can be defined as the set of rules that govern all social interactions in a certain society.
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The definition of ‘social' naturally refers to social structures. Similarly, ‘accepted' does not imply that such knowledge is true according to scientific standards-for example, the Judaeo-Christian belief that God created the world-but only that it is accepted within one culture as ‘true'.
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Under this definition, ‘knowledge' is not limited to natural and social phenomena, but includes, for example, religion, worldviews and moral values. Some of the great social theorists of the last century defined ‘culture' in terms of the generally accepted knowledge of a certain society or social group ( Habermas, 1981 Giddens, 1984). Socio-cultural evolution, as the name implies, has two dimensions: social and cultural. Therefore, at the outset, it is necessary to give a precise definition of evolution in the field of human societies ( Klüver, 2002). It is true that the evolution of human societies and cultures shares some similarities with biological evolution, but in many respects these two are not the same.
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What does socio-cultural evolution mean? There have been many attempts to define this ambiguous concept ( Trigger, 1998), which have interpreted the term ‘evolution' in a literal sense and assumed that socio-cultural evolution is determined by the same mechanisms as its biological counterpart. Here, I attempt to explain why modern humans existed long before socio-cultural evolution really began. Nevertheless, socio-cultural evolution did not end biological evolution in fact, for most of the time that Homo sapiens has existed, socio-cultural evolution has been so slow that it could not have affected biological evolution. Various mathematical models of biological evolution, namely the genetic algorithm ( Holland, 1975), show that the generation of such an attractor is the usual result of evolutionary processes ( Klüver, 2000). In mathematical terms, one could say that human biological evolution created an attractor: a stable state impervious to change. Modern Homo sapiens first appeared about 200,000 years ago however, socio-cultural evolution only began about 10,000 years ago, when early hunter–gatherer societies began to change their simple forms of segmentary social differentiation during the so-called Neolithic revolution, which was mainly caused by the invention of agriculture and cattle breeding. Yet, the idea that cultural fitness has replaced biological fitness does not fully take into account the thousands of years of human biological evolution that occurred long before socio-cultural evolution, in its strictest sense, took its course. In essence, socio-cultural evolution is ‘Lamarckian' in nature-it is an example of acquired inheritance, as described by the French naturalist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829)-because humans are able to pass on cultural achievements to the next generation. Moreover, the mechanism of socio-cultural evolution is different from the model of biological evolution that was proposed by Charles Darwin (1809–1882), and refined by many others. The construction of artificial environments and social structures created new criteria for selection, and biological fitness was replaced by ‘cultural fitness', which is often different for different cultures and is generally not measured by the number of offspring. Many biologists and social scientists have noted that with the development of human culture, the biological evolution of Homo sapiens was usurped by socio-cultural evolution.